DETERMINATION OF THE GLYCEMIC INDICES OF COMPOSITE WHEAT, SORGHUM AND MILLET MEAL
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The glycemic index (GI) is a measure of the potential of foods containing the same amount of carbohydrate toraise ß-glucose concentration in the blood after a meal. This study was conducted to measure the glycemic indexand glycemic load of staple foods used in Nigeria for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Whole grainflours of wheat, millet and sorghum mixed with sardines (sardinopsmalanosticta) were prepared into meals in the laboratory of the Department of Food Science and Technology,Imo State University. Proximate composition of the flours was determined by using AOAC (1995)methods. Glycemic index (GI) was determined according to FAO/WHO (1998) recommendations using 10respondents. Results showed that, cassava meal had the highest percentage of carbohydrate (83.31%) followedby sorghum (78.16%), wheat (72.60%) and finger millet (72.12%). There was a significant(p<0.05) difference in carbohydrate content between cassava and the other foods. Regarding GI, results showedthat, wheat has (51), while finger millet(60.92)hadmediumGIvalues and Sorghummeal hadthehighestGI(65.71).
The variations in GI index values observed could be attributed to characteristics of the carbohydrate and the typeof starch present in the foods. According to GIs data, undehulled wheatmeal are recommended for the regular diet for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Moreover fingermillet and sorghum meals are also recommended to be consumed moderately in a diet. It is important toassociate GL and GI data of Nigerians traditional foods for the management and the prevention of diabetes inNigerianandinotherscountries sharingthesame traditionfoods.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE
TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
- Background Of Study
- Problem Statement
- Aim and objectives of the study
- Research hypothesis
- Significance of the study
- Scope of the study
- Limitations of the study
- Research question
- Project organisation
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
- Staple Food
- Millet
- Sorghum
- Wheat
- Carbohydrate
- Dietarycarbohydrate
- Totalcarbohydrate
- Sugars
- Starch
- Dietaryfibre
- Availablecarbohydrate
- Carbohydratedigestion
- Glycaemicindexconcept
- Glycaemicload concept
- Determinationofglycaemicindex
- GlycaemicLoadandHealth
- Glycaemicloadanddiabetes
- Glycaemicloadandcoronaryheartdiseases
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD
- Materials
- Method
- Chemicalanalyses
- Proximatecomposition
- Digestibilitystudy
- Oraltestload
- Fecalexcretion
- Glycemicindex
- Recruitmentofparticipants
- Screeningofcandidate
- Datacollection
- Ethicalconsiderations
- Statisticaldataanalysis
CHAPTER FOUR
- RESULTSANDDISCUSSION
- Results
- Discussion
CHAPTER FIVE
- conclusion and recommendation
- REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
According to Jenkins et al (2018), glycemic index (GI) is known as a measure of the potential of foods containing the same amount of carbohydrate toraise β-glucose concentration in the blood after a meal. It compares the hyperglycemic effect of a meal withpure glucose or bread (Itam et al, 2012). Epidemiological studies have associated GI with the causation and treatment ofchronic diseases, such as Type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and cancer (Brynes et al, 2013). The GIconceptalsotakesintoaccounttheeffectofthetotalamountofcarbohydrateconsumedwhichisaglycemicload (GL). Therefore, glycemic load is a product of GI and quantity of carbohydrate eaten which indicates theamount of glucose available for energy or storage following a meal containing carbohydrate (Venn et al, 2017). GI values rangefromless than20% toapproximately100%whenusingglucose asareference(Ranawana et al, 2019).
Glycemic index acts as a scale which ranks the carbohydrate in foods depending on how they affect bloodglucose levels in a span of 1 to 2 hours after a meal (Wolever et al, 2018). Its response to food which affects insulin responsedepends on the rate of gastric emptying, as well as on the rate of digestion and absorption of carbohydrate fromthe small intestines (Ostman et al, 2011). This implies that, while foods with elevated GI break down quickly during digestion andrelease glucose rapidly into the bloodstream the foods with lower GI usually take long time to get digested andabsorbed resulting into slower and gradual changes in blood sugar levels (Mendosa, 2019). The lower glycemic responseusually relates to a lower insulin demand and may improve glucose level over time [9]. A low-GI food willrelease glucose more slowly and steadily, which leads to more suitable postprandial (after meal) blood glucosereadings. High glycemic index foods cause more rapid rise in blood glucose levels and are recommended forenergy recovery after exercise or for a person experiencing hypoglycemia (Atkinson et al, 2018). The glycemic effect of foodsdepends on a number of factors such as the type of starch in the food (amylose versus amylopectin), physicalentrapment of the starch molecules within the food, fat and protein content and organic acids or their salts in themeal[Wanjek et al, 2012].
Scientific evidence has shown that individuals who took a low-GI diet over many years had significantly lowerrisk of developing type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, and age-related muscular degeneration than others. Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a metabolic degenerative disease and if not properly managed can lead to a lotof complications. Sheard (2014) reported that, repeated glycemic rise following a meal may promote these diseasesby increasing systemic glycative stress, other oxidative stresses, and direct increase in insulin levels. Many low-GI foods are relatively less refined and more difficult to consume than high-GI foods. The lower energy densityandpalatabilityofthesefoodsareimportantdeterminantsoftheirgreatersatiatingcapacity.Dietaryfactorssuchasfibersandglycemicload/indexmayaffectplasmaadinopectinthroughmodulationofbloodglucose,becausea diet rich in some types of fiber can lower glucose concentrations whereas a diet high in glycemic index mayincrease blood glucose (Brand-Miller et al, 2019). A Study done by the European Association for Diabetes (American Diabetes Association, 2012) recommended high-fiber,low-GIfoodsforindividualswithdiabetesasameansofimprovingpostprandialglycemiaandweightcontrol.A study from Harvard University indicated that, the long-term consumption of a diet with a high glycemic loadand glycemic index was a significant independent predictor of the risk of developing type 2 diabetes (Godley et al, 2019). Otherevidenceshaveshownthatalow-GIdietmightalsoprotectagainstthedevelopmentofobesity,coloncancerand breast cancer [Ebbeling et al (2012) & Pawlak et al (2018)]. Since low-GI foods have been shown to improve blood glucose control inpeople with type 2 diabetes mellitus, to increase insulin sensitivity and β-cell function and to reduce serumtriacylglycerol, and then they have been recommended to help guide food choices for diabetic and non-diabeticindividuals(Wolever et al, 2012).
Widespread use of the GI, as recommended, requires a standardized method for determining the GI of foods thatisvalidandprecise.Inrecentyears,therehasbeenasteadyglobalincreaseintheincidenceofnon-communicable diseases, such as diabetes in both developed and developing countries, Nigeria inclusive. Selection of low-GI carbohydratefoods for meal planning for individuals with type 2 diabetes as recommended by FAO/WHO (2018) has remainedpertinent in the long term management of T2DM. Practical implications of GI and nutritional recommendationsthat could be made on diets need clear knowledge of the GI values for various foods. There is how everknowledge gaponthe GI values for many staple foods inmany parts of developingcountries includingNigeria. This study was therefore designed as part of the efforts to fill that gap of knowledge. Results of thisstudy will serve as basis for advising diabetic subjects of appropriate food selection based on GI and in planningpublichealtheducation interventionondiabetesmanagement.
1.2 StatementoftheProblem
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder withastronghereditarybasis,associatedwithbloodglucose.Basicallyitiscausedbythedeficiencyin the secretion ofinsulin of pancreaticcells. The two main types of diabetes classified by WHO are insulindependent or Type 1 and non-insulin dependent diabetes orType 2.
DiabetesmellitusisoneofthemostcommonsyndromefromtheclusterofSyndromeXaffectingmasses. However, diet remains the cornerstone for diabetic patients, especially non-insulin dependentdiabetics.Wholegrainscoupledwithmilletbasedfoodspossesslowglycemicindex,whichplaysamajorroleinthemanagementofhyperglycemiaindiabetes.
According to Willet et al. (2012), the consumption of high glycaemicindicesandhighglycaemicloaddietsforseveralyearsmightresultinincreased postprandial blood glucose spikesandexcessive insulin secretion.This could lead to the loss of insulin-secreting function of the pancreatic β-cells, resulting in irreversible Type 2 Diabetes mellitus. In addition to thisassertion, Ludwig and Daniel (2012) in a study state that, sustained spikes inblood sugar and insulin levels may lead to increased diabetes risk. Diabetesmellitus Type 2 is currently one of the most prevailing chronic diseases in theworld and the number of people with the disease is stated to be increasing ineverycountry. International Diabetes Federation (IDF) has estimated that 415 millionadults globally, are presently living with the condition. Nonetheless, this ispredicted that people having this condition would rise to 642 million by 2040.Anestimated14.2millionadults(aged20-79)havediabetesinAfrica,representing 6.7% (IDF, 2016).This prevalence can be minimized to a lowerrate when peoplearemade aware of the glycaemic indices andglycaemicloads of the foods they consume, as these play major roles in the developmentof this condition. When consumers are well informed on the rate at which theglucose in our local foods is released into the bloodstream, they will be verycautious about their choice of food and even the time they eat these foods aswellasthe amount they consume.
However, this work studies the glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal.
1.3 Aim and objectives oftheStudy
Themain aimofthisstudywastodetermine the glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal. Toachievethis, thestudy soughtto;
- Determine the glycemic load of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal.
- Performproximateanalysisof wheat, sorghum and millet meal.
- Carryout the sensoryanalysis of thewheat, sorghum and millet meal.
- Make a recommendation for food to be consumed moderately in a diet
- Determine the digestibilityof wheat, sorghum and millet meal.
1.4 ResearchHypothesis
H0=Thereisnosignificantdifferenceintheglycemicloadofglycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal.
H1=Thereisasignificantdifferenceinglycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal.
Essentially, the glycemic load, which is the product of the glycemicindex and the carbohydrate content of a given food, may be more useful thanonlytheglycemicindex.Thisisbecausetheglycemicloadtakesintoaccounttheportionsizeofthe foodaswellasthecarbohydratecontent.Glycemic load is a significant factor in dietary programmes aiming at themetabolicsyndrome,insulin resistance,and weight loss.
It is hoped that this study willcome up with the optimal size of glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal which when consumed will have noeffect on the blood glucose level. Knowledge of the glycemic load of glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal could serve as a guide to diabetics to choose thesestable food withthebestglycemic load.
This study may also inform nutritionists, dieticians and diet therapists on the glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal recommend to prediabetics and diabetics when theycounseltheirclients.
This study will solve the problem of high intake of food containing large amount of carbohydrates. The study also will also make important contribution to future research by contributing to the existing literature particularly on nutrition.
1.6 Scope of the study
The research focused on glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal and their impact on the blood glucose. This studyinvestigated all the possible wheat, sorghum and millet meal that are consumed in the countryand also analyzes the extent to which each of these affect the blood glucoselevel.
1.7 Limitations
The study determined the glycemic load of wheat, sorghum and millet meal.All thedifferent staple foods; wheat, sorghum and millet meal were analyzed. Findings cannot be easily generalized for other carbohydratefoods. The study focused on the effect wheat, sorghum and millet meal has on blood glucose level after ithasbeendigestedandsohealthyindividualswereusedforthestudy.
1.8 Research Question
- What is the glycemic index for wheat, sorghum and millet meal?
- What is the major cause of diabetes mellitus?
- Do wheat, sorghum and millet meal has high glycemic index?
1.9 Project Organisation
The work is organized as follows: chapter one discuss the introductory part of the work, chapter two presents the literature review of the study, chapter three describes the methods applied, chapter four discusses the results of the work, chapter five summarizes the research outcomes and the recommendations.
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Conclusion and Recommendation
According to GIs data, undehulled wheat meals are recommended in a diet for the regular management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Moreover finger millet, sorghum is to be consumed moderately.These findings suggest the importance of informing diabetes patients on varied physiological responses to CHO foods among individuals when following the GI concept to choose carbohydrate foods. Furthermore, mixtures and consistency of foods may affect the bioavailability and hence the GI values for the individual foods. Findings of the present study may serve as useful guidance for dietitians who are involved in meal planning for diabetic patients. They can be used to achieve healthy eating and to plan chronic disease risk reduction programs in high-risk populations. It is also recommended that the GI concept is applied in the context of mixed meals so as to formulate the dietary guideline to follow while planning diet for T2DM patients in Nigeria. Moreover it is recommended that managing chronic conditions among others, there is a need to quantify the glycemic index and glycemic load of local staple foods.
CHAPTER TWO: The chapter one of this work has been displayed above. The complete chapter two of "determination of the glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal" is also available. Order full work to download. Chapter two of "determination of the glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal" consists of the literature review. In this chapter all the related work on "determination of the glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal" was reviewed.
CHAPTER THREE: The complete chapter three of "determination of the glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal" is available. Order full work to download. Chapter three of "determination of the glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal" consists of the methodology. In this chapter all the method used in carrying out this work was discussed.
CHAPTER FOUR: The complete chapter four of "determination of the glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal" is available. Order full work to download. Chapter four of "determination of the glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal" consists of all the test conducted during the work and the result gotten after the whole work
CHAPTER FIVE: The complete chapter five of "determination of the glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal" is available. Order full work to download. Chapter five of "determination of the glycemic indices of composite wheat, sorghum and millet meal" consist of conclusion, recommendation and references.
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