ESTIMATION OF SOLAR ISOLATION OF TEMPERATURE VARIATION FROM SOLAR HEATED LIQUID
Renewed interest of solar as an energy source in heating systems has gained relevance in various fields and in agricultural operations such as dairy farm hot water supply and food preservation. Microwave heating and food irradiation using solar systems have also been used on commercial scale. Many of these applications require heated air at relatively low temperatures. Traditional heat production is through wood, natural gas or LP gas. Fuel wood account for over 50% of the overall energy consumption in Nigeria, about 80% of these are consumed as firewood mainly in the rural households. The average daily consumption is 0.5-1kg of dry fuel wood per person, which is equivalent to 10-20 mega joules per day. The current rate of consumption of fuel wood far exceeded the replenishing rate to such extent that acute ecological problems of deforestation soil erosion, and desertification are well recognized problems in the country today
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWELDGEMENT
ABSTRCT
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE
- INTRODUCTION
- BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
- AVAILABILITY OF SOLAR ENERGY IN NIGERIA
- ENERGY FROM THE SUN
- THE SUN AND ITS ENERGY
- THE PHYSICS OF RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSFER
- THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
- DEFINITION OF TERMS
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 REVIEW OF IRRADIANCE AND INSOLATION
2.2 REVIEW OF AVAILABLE SOLAR ENERGY
2.3 EQUIVALENT HOURS OF FULL SUN (EHS)
2.4 RADIATION TRANSFER FROM SUN TO EARTH
2.5 ENERGY FROM EARTH AND EARTH'S TEMPERATURE
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY3.1 CAPTURING THE SOLAR ENERGY
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 TESTING
4.2 RESULT
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
5.2 REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The earth receives more energy from the Sun in just one hour than the world's population uses in a whole year.
The total solar energy flux intercepted by the earth on any particular day is 4.2 X 1018 Watt-hours or 1.5 X 1022 Joules (or 6.26 X 1020 Joules per hour). This is equivalent to burning 360 billion tons of oil ( toe ) per day or 15 Billion toe per hour.
In fact the world's total energy consumption of all forms in the year 2000 was only 4.24 X 1020 Joules.
Sunlight comes in many colours, combining low-energy infrared photons (1.1 eV) with high-energy ultraviolet photons (3.5 eV) and all the visible-light photons between.
The graph below shows the spectrum of the solar energy impinging on a plane, directly facing the sun, outside the Earth's atmosphere at the Earth's mean distance from the Sun. The area under the curve represents the total energy in the spectrum. Known as the "Solar Constant" G0, it is equal to 1367 Watts per square metre (W/m2).
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
When solar energy is mentioned anytime, the sun readily comes to mind, so it is justifiable to discuss in brief the physical and chemical behaviours of the sun before its application to heating. The sun has structure and characteristics, which determine the nature of the energy it radiates into space. The sun is sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter with a diameter of 1.39x106km and is on the average 1.5x108km from the earth. The surface of the sun is at an effective temperature of about 5762K (5489°C). The temperature in the central interior regions is estimated at between 8x106K to 40x106K and the density about 80 to 100 times that of water. The fusion reactions which is suggested to supply the energy radiated by the sun is several, the one considered most important is a process in which hydrogen combines to form helium.
A schematic of the structure of the sun shows that 90% of the energy is generated in the region 0 to 0.23R (where R = radius of the sun) and contains 40% of the mass of the sun. At a distance of 0.7R from the center, the temperature drops to about 130,000K and density dropped to 0.07g/cm3. Here convection processes begin to become important and from 0.7 to 1.0R is known as the convective zone. The upper layer of the convective zone is called the photosphere. The edge of the photosphere is sharply defined, even though it is of low density. It is essentially opaque as the gases it composed of are strongly ionized and able to absorb and emit a continuous spectrum of radiation. The photosphere is the source of most solar radiation.
Outside of the photosphere is a more or less transparent solar atmosphere, which is observable during total solar eclipse or by instrument that occult the solar disk. Above the photosphere is a layer of cooler gases several hundred miles deep called the reversing layer, outside of that is layer referred to as the chromospheres, with a depth of about 10,000 km. This is a gaseous layer with temperature higher than that of the photosphere and with lower density. Further out is the corona of very low density and high temperature.
The sun's energy which is nuclear energy released in fusion reaction reaches the earth as electromagnetic in the wavelength band of about 0.3µm with its peak spectral intensity near 0.5µm. The scale of the sun's thermometer reaction is such that, as far as the earth is concerned, the energy available is practically inexhaustible.
The intensity of solar radiation on a surface normal to the sun’s rays beyond the earth's atmosphere at the mean earth-sun distance is defined as the solar constant Isc. Although there are recurrent small variations in the sun's radiant output caused primarily by periodic changes in the ultraviolet portion of the solar spectrum, the currently accepted value of Isc is 4353w/m2. Because the earth orbit is slightly elliptical and the extraterrestrial radiation intensity Io varies inversely as the square of the earth-sun distance, Io ranges from a maximum of 1398w/m2 on January 3, when the earth is closer to the sun, to a minimum of 1310w/m2 on July 6, when the earth-sun distance reaches its maximum.
Despite the variations, solar energy can be used in three processes:
a. Heliothermal- this is the system in which the incident radiation is absorbed and turned into heat.
b. Heliochemical- in which radiation between 0.3 and 1.0µm can cause chemical reactions, sustain growth of plants and animals and through photosynthesis convert exhaled carbon dioxide to breakable oxygen.
c. Helioelectrical – in which part of the radiation in the band between 0.33 and 1.2 µm can be converted directly into electricity by photovoltaic cells.
The incoming solar radiation suffers depletion in the following ways:
1. Absorption by the ozone in the upper atmosphere.
2. Scattering by dry air.
3. Absorption, scattering and diffuse reflection by suspended solid particles.
4. Absorption and scattering by thin cloud layers.
5. Absorption and scattering by water vapour.
1.2 AVAILABILITY OF SOLAR ENERGY IN NIGERIA
To evaluate the economics and performance of system for the utilization of solar energy in a particular location, knowledge of the available solar radiation at that place is essential. Thus the utilization of solar energy, as with any other natural resource requires detailed information on availability. The availability of solar radiation on the earth's surface is a function of geographical zone. The regions lying between 15° and 35°latitude north and south respectively seem to be most favourably located. They have relatively little rains and clouds so that over 90% of the incident sunshine is direct radiation and the yearly sunshine hour is usually over 3000. The next most favourable region is the equatorial belt from 15°S to 15°N which receives about 2300hours of sunshine per year with very little seasonal variation. The high humidity and frequent clouds in this belt generally result in a high proportion of the solar radiation taking the form of scattered radiation. Nigeria lying approximately between 4°N and 13°N latitude is a geographically favourable zone for harnessing solar energy. On average the yearly total solar energy incident on a horizontal surface in Nigeria.
1.3 ENERGY FROM THE SUN
The energy that drives the climate system comes from the Sun. When the Sun's energy reaches the Earth it is partially absorbed in different parts of the climate system. The absorbed energy is converted back to heat, which causes the Earth to warm up and makes it habitable. Solar radiation absorption is uneven in both space and time and this gives rise to the intricate pattern and seasonal variation of our climate. To understand the complex patterns of Earth's radiative heating we begin by exploring the relationship between Earth and the Sun throughout the year, learn about the physical laws governing radiative heat transfer, develop the concept of radiative balance, and explore the implications of all these for the Earth as a whole. We examine the relationship between solar radiation and the Earth's temperature, and study the role of the atmosphere and its constituents in that interaction, to develop an understanding of the topics such as the "seasonal cycle" and the "greenhouse effect". We complement this lecture by a set of two laboratory assignments that explore in much more detail the spatially and seasonally varying elements of the Earth radiation budget as they are revealed through satellite observations of the Earth.
1.4 THE SUN AND ITS ENERGY
The Sun is the star located at the center of our planetary system. It is composed mainly of hydrogen and helium. In the Sun's interior, a thermonuclear fusion reaction converts the hydrogen into helium releasing huge amounts of energy. The energy created by the fusion reaction is converted into thermal energy (heat) and raises the temperature of the Sun to levels that are about twenty times larger that of the Earth's surface. The solar heat energy travels through space in the form of electromagnetic waves enabling the transfer of heat through a process known as radiation.
Solar radiation occurs over a wide range of wavelengths. However, the energy of solar radiation is not divided evenly over all wavelengths but, as Figure 1 shows, is rather sharply centered on the wavelength band of 0.2-2 micrometers (μm=one millionth of a meter). As can be seen from Figure 2, the main range of solar radiation includes ultraviolet radiation (UV, 0.001-0.4 μm), visible radiation (light, 0.4-0.7 μm), and infrared radiation (IR, 0.7-100 μm).
1.5 THE PHYSICS OF RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSFER
Before proceeding to investigate the effect of solar radiation on Earth we should take a moment to review the physical laws governing the transfer of energy through radiation. In particular we should understand the following points:
- The radiative heat transfer process is independent of the presence of matter. It can move heat even through empty space.
- All bodies emit radiation and the wavelength (or frequency) and energy characteristics (or spectrum) of that radiation are determined solely by the body's temperature.
- The energy flux drops as the square of distance from the radiating body.
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