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Groundwater utilization as a source of fresh water supply for various purposes in discharge area shows an ever to increasing trend, while land use of recharges also changes as development progresses. To meet its needs, many people rely on land-based exploration and exploitation. Groundwater is one of nature's most valuable and inseparable resources for life on earth. Groundwater exploration requires appropriate and efficient techniques. One commonly used method is geoelectrical imaging.it is efficient and economical to determine groundwater. Geoelectricimaging is one of the variables which is the physical properties of the rock layers below the surface. Rock resistivity data can be used to develop a model of subsurface and stratigraphic structures in terms of electrical properties. Geoelectric resistivity depends on lithology, air content, porosity, and pore ions concentration. This work is on the use of geoeletric imaging in groundwater evaluation.
                                                                                                                        

 

CHAPTER ONE
DEFINITION OF TERMS
GEOELECTRIC IMAGING is a method of using an electrical resistivity instrument that is connected to electrodes, using separate electrodes for current transmission and potential measurement. The electrodes are inserted to a few decimetres into the ground, in a straight line with equal spacing between the electrodes. The electrical resistivity instrument sends out a current into the ground via the current electrodes, while the voltage between the potential electrodes is measured simultaneously. The potential measured depends on the resistivity distribution of the subsurface material. A geometrical factor must be used to calculate the resistivity [Ωm] of the ground from the measured resistance [Ω], which is specific for the chosen electrode geometry. The measured resistivity depends on the combined effect of the investigated earth volume, which would only be equal to the true resistivity in a homogeneous material; hence the measured quantity is referred to as apparent resistivity. In order to estimate the true resistivity distribution of the ground it is necessary to generate a model of the ground which is adjusted so that the model fits a set of measured data, which is nowadays generally done using inverse numerical modelling (inversion) (Robinson, 2018). The resistivity ranges over a large span, from 10-8 to 1016 Ωm, the lowest value are for massive sulphides and the highest are for unweathered igneous and metamorphic rocks.

GROUNDWATER is commonly understood to mean water occupying all the voids within a geologic stratum. Groundwater is water that fills water saturated pathways, including springs that surface naturally. Groundwater is a vital source of water, especially in areas with no drains, streams and rain, and provides an indication of groundwater to the potential for community formation to the extent permitted by their validity in terms of quality and quantity.
Groundwater is one of the nation’s most valuable natural resources; it is the source of about 40 percent of the water used for all purposes exclusive of hydropower generation and electric power plant cooling. Surprisingly for a resource that is so widely used and so important to health and to the economy of the country, the occurrence of ground water is not only poorly understood but is also, in fact , the subject of many widespread misconceptions. Common misconception includes the belief that ground water occurs in underground rivers resembling surface streams whose presence can be detected by certain individuals. These misconceptions and others have hampered the development and conservations of ground water and have adversely affected the protection of its quality.Groundwater occurs everywhere but sometimes its availability in economic quantity depends solely on the distribution of the subsurface geomaterials that are referred to as the aquifers. This implies that where groundwater is not potentially endowed enough, there may be either complete lack or inadequacy due to increasing industrial and domestic needs(Attia, 2007).

Groundwater evaluation:  this is a method that is employed for detecting and mapping ground-water contamination under a variety of conditions. The method is based on the fact that formation resistivity depends on the conductivity of the pore fluid as well as the properties of the porous medium. Under favorable conditions, contrasts in resistivity may be attributed to mineralized groundwater with a higher than normal specific conductance originating at a contamination source. Success with surface resistivity methods depends to a large extent on a good knowledge of subsurface conditions. Conditions favorable for delineating zones of contamination include uniform subsurface conditions, a shallow groundwater table, and good electrical contrast between mineralized and natural water.
One of the primary problems in field investigations of groundwater pollution is locating the contaminant plume. In most cases, the goal is to positively locate the pollutant and its movement by test holes and direct monitoring. In the interest of efficiency the investigative areas should be as focused as possible. In many cases a general knowledge of local hydrogeology allows a reasonable initial estimate of pollutant direction; in other instances even this may be lacking. Drilling of sampling holes on a hit-or-miss basis is both time-consuming and expensive. It can also be destructive to the property involved. Under certain subsurface conditions, surface geoelectrical profiling can quickly and cheaply locate the general location of the plume and identify areas most feasible for sampling and monitoring.
Numerous investigations have established the usefulness of surface electrical resistivity as a tool in the detection of ground water contamination.
The geoelectric resistivity method is considered to be the most suitable and efficient method for groundwater exploration. It is based on the concept of subsurface determination, which can yield useful information on the structure, composition and water content of the soil. Geoelectric can also be used to determine the aquifer depth, stratigraphy and water quality of the aquifer [6]. It is one of the geophysical methods that study the nature of electrical current in the earth and to know the change of resistance of rock layers beneath the soil surface by passing a DC current (direct current) that has high voltage into the ground. This method is more effective for superficial exploration, such as determination of depth of bedrock, water reservoir search, and also for geothermal exploration. One of the physical properties of rock is its capacity carrying an electric current or commonly referred to as a type of resistance (Robinson, 2018). This capacity is used by humans to distinguish the type of rock without having to make physical contact or drilling that takes a long time and high cost, yet the accuracy level of data is reliable because the pumping test can provide important information on transmissivity and storativity of groundwater aquifers  (Aad et al, 2010).
There are several geoelectric measurement methods for groundwater investigation. Based on the configuration of potential electrodes and current electrodes, there are several types of resistivity methods, such as Schlumberger Method, Wenner Method, and Dipole Sounding Method. Of the several methods, the Schlumberger method is often used particulary for ground water investigation in alluvial and hard rock fields. However, previous researches have shown that in wide open spaces along the lines, coverage time, this method requires high labor and cost. The suggested method is a convenient and economical operation for rapid and shallow groundwater investigations in the populated of hard rocky areas. In fact, many groundwater investigations are needed in densely populated areas. Therefore, there is a need for appropriate techniques that are cost effective and require no large open space and extensive labor. Geoelectric exploration does not only obtain the type of rock layers, but can also be interpreted as a potential groundwater such as the depth of the aquifer and its distribution below the surface. In addition, groundwater movement can also be investigated based on the type of rock layers illustrated by the geoelectric measurements. The movement of atmospheric water and surface water is relatively easier to visualize, but it is not easy for groundwater movement. Eslamian (2014) investigated groundwater movement with hydrogeochemical modeling. Geoelectric can also show the relationship between hydraulic parameters and geoelectric properties of granite aquifer with a mathematical formulation such as hydraulic conductivity value, transmissivity, and storativity(Aad et al, 2010). The purpose of the geoelectric survey is to determine the subsurface resistivity by measuring the surface of the earth. Resistivity is related to minerals, fluid content and degree of water saturation in rocks.

Aim and objectives:
The aim of this work is to detect the extent of contaminant intrusion on ground water in an area, with the following objectives in mind:

1. To evaluate the quality of groundwater
2. To study the geo electrical properties of the sub surface to depth in other to estimate contamination degree.
3. To uncover the direction of pollutant flow relative to the ground water flow.
4. To assess the vertical and lateral extent of contaminated groundwater into sub surface and how much ground water area it covered.

CHAPTER TWO
RELEVANCE OF GEOELECTRIC IMAGING IN GROUNDWATER EVALUATION
Geoelectrical resistivity imaging has played an important role in addressing a wide variety of hydrogeological, environmental and geotechnical issues. The goal of geoelectrical resistivity surveys is to determine the distribution of subsurface resistivity by taking measurements of the potential difference on the ground surface. For a typical inhomogeneous subsurface, the true resistivity distribution is estimated by carrying out inversion on the observed apparent resistivity values. In environmental and engineering investigations, the subsurface geology is usually complex, subtle and multi-scale such that both lateral and vertical variations in the petrophysical properties can be very rapid. Two-dimensional (2D) geoelectrical resistivity imaging has been widely used to map areas with moderately complex geology (Mangeney et al, 2018). In the 2D model of interpretation, the subsurface resistivity is considered to vary both laterally and vertically along the survey line but constant in the perpendicular direction. The major limitation of the 2D geoelectrical resistivity imaging is that measurements made with large electrode spacing are often affected by the deeper sections of the subsurface as well as structures at a larger horizontal distance from the survey line. This is most pronounced when the survey line is placed near a steep contact with the line parallel to the contact (Anomohanran et al, 2015). Potential field surveys are relatively inexpensive and can quickly cover large areas of ground. The primary goal of studying potential fields is to provide a better understanding of the subsurface geology. If groundwater is to be exploited, it is essential that the entire project be conducted in most efficient and cost-effective way possible. Rushing into borehole drilling will probably result in the incorrect location of aquiferous zone. The geoelectric techniques has been successfully used in investigating groundwater potential in various geological setting even in areas of complex geology in different parts of the world (Anomohanran et al, 2015). The most usual parameters are the porosity, the permeability, the transmissivity and the conductivity (Bernard, 2013). The heavy reliance on groundwater as a source of affordable water for both industrial and domestic use throughout the world demands that the water occurrence within the subsurface is of significant quantity and high quality. Subsurface geological characterizations using surficial geoelectrical resistivity technique are sufficient to address variety of problems related hydrological investigations in complex geological terrains such as crystalline basement. Several works have been carried out on the assessment, abstraction, development and management of groundwater within the hard rock terrain of Nigeria. Groundwater is the subsurface water which fully saturates the pores and behaves in response to gravitational force (Anomohanran et al, 2015). Water is an indispensable resource and the concern of many earth scientists and researchers have been on the acquisition of a reliable source of drinking water (Akinbinu, 2015). Surface and groundwater resources are abundant in Nigeria. Groundwater on its own has less of a degree of contamination when compared with surface water and this has contributed to an increase in the number of boreholes drilled by the government, non-governmental organizations and individuals in Nigeria. Resistivity imaging method has improved the chance of drilling successfully by identifying the fractured and weathered zones in hard and compacted terrain (Anomohanran et al, 2015). The flow potential of groundwater is a measure of the transmissivity of the aquifer, which is the product of the aquifer thickness and hydraulic conductivity. The knowledge of aquifer characteristics is important in determining the natural flow of water through an aquifer, it response to withdrawal of fluid, the availability, quantity and quality of the groundwater. Hydraulic conductivity (k) is a measure of the ease with which a fluid will pass through a medium (Robinson, 2018). By definition, hydraulic conductivity depends not only upon the medium but also on the fluid (Robinson, 2018). There are several geophysical methods employed in groundwater evaluation (electrical resistivity- known as geoelectrical imaging, gravity, seismic, magnetic, remote sensing and electromagnetic), the geoelectrical imagingmethod is the most effective for locating productive wells. It is an effective and a reliable tool in locating viable aquifers for continuous and regular water supply (Robinson, 2018). It has the advantage of non-destructive effect on the environment, cost effective, rapid and quick survey time and less ambiguity interpretations of results when compared to other geophysical survey methods (Robinson, 2018). The vertical electrical sounding (VES) technique provides information on the vertical variations in the resistivity of the ground with depth (Robinson, 2018). It is used to solve a wide variety of groundwater problems, such as determination of depth, thickness and boundary of aquifers (Ellis, 2014), determination of zones with high yield potential in an aquifer (Ellis, 2014) and determination of groundwater quality (Arshad et al., 2007). VES has been employed extensively in groundwater investigations in many basement complex terrains of Africa (Adeniji et al., 2013). Resistivity is a principle that is governed sorely by pore fluid content or matrix mineral. If the matrix mineral is highly conductive (gold, clay, galena, etc.), the resistivity will be low. If pore fluid is water, resistivity will also be low. There is a clear absence of conductive minerals on the outcrops; therefore, low resistivity response can only be due to the presence of groundwater in the fractures. Hence, the study aims at examine the application of Geo-electrical resistivity imaging to investigate groundwater potentials
The knowledge that has led to the application of geolectricalimaging in site investigation. Due to the limitations of the conventional 1-D resistivity sounding and profiling, electrical resistivity imaging (2-D) was used in this study for mapping the subsurface layers. Other advantages of geoelectric imaging are:
It will provide useful information on the condition of ground water at dump site areas which can serve as a useful tool in environmental impact assessment (EIA), of that area.
It provides information about water flow direction will assist in the design of efficient and cost-effective monitoring networks and remediation strategies of ground water pollution.
Geoelectric details of the subsurface gotten from this study will give sound knowledge of the sub surface geology including infiltration and percolation process is prerequisite for managing contaminant transport in the saturated or aquifer zone.

FACTORS THAT FACILITATE OR IMPEDE GROUNDWATER EVALUATION VIA GEOELECTRIC IMAGING
The knowledge of subsurface geology and the characterization of the spatial distribution of subsurface physical properties are important for effective delineation of an area under survey (Ahzegbobor, 2010 ) and (Aigbogun, 2010). The choice of a particular geoelectrical imaging method depends mainly on the objective of the investigation relative to the sensitivity of the method, the resolution desired, the site conditions, time required for the survey, and the funds and computational resources available. Different geophysical techniques as well as available hydrogeological and geological data are often integrated to obtain a better understanding of the subsurface media at different scales and resolutions. (Meju, 2000) and (Pedersen et al., 2005).

CHAPTER THREE
CONCLUSION RECOMMENDATION
Based on the analytical and interpretative input of representations from various studies by some experts, it can be concluded that geoelectric are a fairly effective and reliable geophysical tool to detect the presence of groundwater, lithology and rock stratigraphy in the earth. Longitudinal conductance calculations and transversal resistance are reliable indicators for aquifer used for groundwater extraction and they produce contour maps showing an area for groundwater exploration and drilling locations. The results of measurement and interpretation of geoelectric data will be better if combined with well bore data and geological map of research area. The most common method used to measure the earth's resistivity through soil is the use of four electrodes. AC current is driven through a pair of electrodes and the potential is measured with a second pair of electrodes. Such surface resistivity methods have been efficiently used for groundwater exploration for many years. Earth resistivity is related to geological parameters from subsurface including rock and soil type, porosity, and degree of saturation. From the magnitude of the current it is possible to calculate the distribution potential and current flow path if the soil is homogeneous. The conditions of anomalies or inhomogeneities in the soil, such as better electricity or worse layers, are inferred from the fact that they deflect currents and distort normal potentials. Geoelectric surveys cannot provide pollution-based answers: natural (over wash) or industrial (shipbuilding activities). The high amount of absorbed organic compounds, though, indicates that at least some of the pollutions may come from activities such as paint stripping and handling of hazardous materials. Geoelectric data can also indicate lateral geometry errors. The resistivity survey method is one of the oldest and most commonly used geophysical exploration methods. It is widely used in environmental and engineering, hydrology, archeology and mineral exploration. Geoelectric surveys have the advantage of data acquisition and sub-surface modeling that can be done only with simple, compact equipment with reliable data accuracy, short time, and low cost (Mangeney, 2018).
REFERENCES
Aigbogun, CO (2010). Geoelectric Investigation of the Groundwater Potential in Uhunmwode Local Government Area, Edo State, Nigeria.Ph.D Thesis, Department of Physics, University of Benin, 255pp.
Ahzegbobor, PA (2010). Acquisition geometry and inversion of 3-d geoelectrical resistivity imaging data for environmental and engineering
O. Anomohanran, Hydrogeophysical investigation of aquifer properties and lithological strata in Abraka, Nigeria, (Journal of African Earth Sciences102, 2015) pp. 247-253.
A. Mangeney, et al, A numerical study of anisotropic, low Reynolds number, free surface flow for ice sheet modeling, (Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 2018), pp. 22749-22764.
G. Aad, et al., Charged-particle multiplicities in pp interactions at measured with the ATLAS detector at the LHC, Physics Letters B688(1): 21-42. (2010).
M. Mohamaden, et al, Application of electrical resistivity method for groundwater exploration at the Moghra area, Western Desert, Egypt, (The Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research, 2016) pp. 261-268.
D.G Robinson, A survey of probabilistic methods used in reliability, risk and uncertainty analysis: analytical techniques, Sandia National Lab, Report SAND981189, (2018).
S. R., Kiran (2017). "General Circulation & Principal Wave Modes in Andaman Sea from Observations". SSRN Working Paper Series. 
Parsekian, A. D.; Singha, K.; Minsley, B. J.; Holbrook, W. S.; Slater, L. (2015). "Multiscale geophysical imaging of the critical zone: Geophysical Imaging of the Critical Zone". Reviews of Geophysics. 53 (1): 1–26. 
Hagrey, Said Attia al (2012)."Geophysical Imaging Techniques". In Mancuso, Stefano (ed.). Measuring Roots. Measuring Roots: An Updated Approach.Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 151–188. 
Attia al Hagrey, Said (2007). "Geophysical imaging of root-zone, trunk, and moisture het erogeneity". Journal of Experimental Botany. 58 (4): 839–854.

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