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TITLE PAGE
MANAGEMENT OF PRODUCED WATER CHALLENGES DURING WATER FLOODING: CASE STUDY NIGER DELTA RESERVOIRS
BY
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--/H2013/01430
DEPARTMENT OF ----
SCHOOL OF ---
INSTITUTE OF ---
DECEMBER,2018
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This is to certify that the research work, " management of produced water challenges during water flooding: case study niger delta reservoirs" by ---, Reg. No. --/H2007/01430 submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement award of a Higher National Diploma on --- has been approved.
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DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to Almighty God for his protection, kindness, strength over my life throughout the period and also to my --- for his financial support and moral care towards me.Also to my mentor --- for her academic advice she often gives to me. May Almighty God shield them from the peril of this world and bless their entire endeavour Amen.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The successful completion of this project work could not have been a reality without the encouragement of my --- and other people. My immensely appreciation goes to my humble and able supervisor mr. --- for his kindness in supervising this project.
My warmest gratitude goes to my parents for their moral, spiritual and financial support throughout my study in this institution.
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Produced water is an inextricable part of the hydrocarbon recovery processes, yet it is by far the largest volume waste stream associated with hydrocarbon recovery. Produced water is known as the largest waste discharge from the production phase of oil gas wells has several components of toxic concern, ranging from heavy metals to soluble hydrocarbons. Management is normally aimed at minimizing or reducing the toxicity of discharged volumes. This study evaluated the physico-chemical properties and some trace metals constituents of ten produced water samples from five selected oil fields in Niger Delta to determine the extent of compliance with standards of discharge. The pH values ranged from 7.47 to 8.30; temperature ranged from 21.90 to 24.70°C; Alkalinity ranged from 49.00 to 340.00 mgL-1; salinity ranged from 2700.00 to 4400.00 mgL-1; turbidity ranged from 10.00 to 79.00; conductivity ranged from 126.50 to 198.00 µScm-1; TDS ranged from 3200.00 to 7000.00mgL-1; Mg2+ hardness ranged 47.00 to 100.00 mgL-1; Ca2+ ranged from 94.00 to 200.00 mgL-1; total hardness ranged from 141.00 to 300.00 mgL-1 and CO2 ranged from 10.00 to 87.00 mgL-1. The concentrations of some trace metals like Zn, Cd, Cu, Pb, and Mn were within acceptable limits while others such as Fe, Cr and Ni are higher than the regulatory limit for nearshore. Most on the metals and physicochemical properties correlated positively showing strong association.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER PAGE
TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWELDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER ONE
- INTRODUCTION
- BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
- PROBLEM STATEMENT
- AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
- RESEARCH GAP
- SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
- LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
- SCOPE OF THE STUDY
- METHODOLOGY
- PROJECT ORGANISATION
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
- OVERVIEW PRODUCED WATER
- CURRENT HANDLING PRACTICES FOR PRODUCED WATER
- CONSTITUENTS OF POTENTIAL CONCERN OF PRODUCED WATER
- INTERNATIONAL REGULATORY POLICIES
- PRODUCED WATER QUALITY
- PRODUCED WATER MANAGEMENT
- PRODUCED WATER REUSE OPTIONS
- BASICS FOR WATERFLOODING
- HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF WATERFLOODING
- NIGERIA OIL PRODUCTION SCENARIO
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
- DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA
- SAMPLE COLLECTION
- CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF PRODUCED WATER SAMPLES
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
- MANAGEMENT OF PRODUCED WATER
- CORRELATION ANALYSIS
CHAPTER FIVE
- CONCLUSION
- REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Produced water is the aqueous liquid phase that is co-produced from a producing well along with the oil and/or gas phases during normal production operations. Produced water is mainly salty water trapped in the reservoir rock and brought up along with oil or gas during production. It is a by-product of the production of hydrocarbons (oil and gas) from underground reservoirs. It consists of formation water, which is water naturally present in the reservoir, or condensed, water in gas production. Almost all offshore oilfields produce large quantities of contaminated water that can have significant environmental effects if not handled properly. Over the life of a well, the volume of water produced will exceed the volume of oil by a factor of 3-6 times. The American Petroleum Institute estimates that in stripper oil well operations approximately nine barrels (378 gallons) of produced water are recovered for each barrel of oil according to Yang, M. and Nel, T [2016]. Sources of this water may include flow from above or below the hydrocarbon zone, flow from within the hydrocarbon zone, or flow from injected fluids and additives resulting from production activities. This water is frequently referred to as connate water or formation water and becomes produced water when the reservoir is produced and these fluids are brought to the surface [Joel, O. F.et al, 2010].
There is more in produced water than water and oil. In 1987, Neff described produced water for ocean discharge as containing up to 48 parts per million (ppm) of petroleum, because it has been in contact with crude oil in the reservoir rocks. There were also elevated concentrations of metals such as barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, nickel, silver, and zinc including "small amounts of the natural radionuclides, radium226 and radium228 and several hundred ppm of non-volatile dissolved organic material of unknown composition which includes dissolved gases (hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide) [Durell G. et al., 2010].
When mixed with seawater, most physico-chemical features of produced water (low dissolved oxygen and pH, elevated salinity and metals) do not pose a hazard to water column biota, but in shallow, turbid waters, elevated concentrations of hydrocarbons may be detected in surface sediments up to about 1,000m from the discharge.
The discharge of produced water into the environment is becoming a serious concern because a wide range of pollutants which includes Hydrocarbons, inorganic salts, trace metals, production chemicals, and oil field chemical residues are also introduced into the environment.
Cline noted that produced waters from petroleum production operations are in most cases, more saline than sea water. Smith [2018] has also confirmed the negative effects of produced waters on the Indonesian environment. However, studies have shown that where there is effective dilution, acute toxic effects of produce water are not expected to be found beyond 50m from the discharge point [Johnsen, S. et al, 2014]. Durrell [2010] reported that oil companies operating in Norway have since the mid- 1990s tried to develop efficient monitoring methods for discharged water.
Furthermore, the volume of produced water is expected to rise as many of the oil fields in the Niger Delta have aged and water conning is known to increase with the age of the field.
Metals are the main inorganic constituents thought to be of environmental concern. The most commonly studied metals are iron, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, arsenic, and zinc. Due to different geological characteristics of the reservoirs, the results are characterized by considerable variability. For instance, gas fields usually provide higher values of heavy metals than oil fields; this is to say that the concentration of metals in produced water depends on the field, particularly with respect to the age and geology of the formation from which the oil and gas are produced. Produced water generated from mature fields has significantly less trace metal content than that from early production fields.
Produced water can have different potential impacts depending on where it is discharged. For example, discharges to small streams are likely to have a larger environmental impact than discharges made to the open ocean by virtue of the dilution that takes place following discharge. It is therefore imperative to have adequate knowledge of the constituents and general characteristics of specific produced waters for regulatory compliance and for selecting management/disposal or effective treatment options such as secondary recovery to reduce toxicity before disposal.
Proper management of produced water should start from accurate estimation of the volume produced. However, the study by Veil and Clark [2010] shows that there is still a lot of challenges on this even in the United States.
In Nigeria, although there has been no reported environmental disaster of high magnitude associated produced water disposal, it is nevertheless a known fact that much of this waste produced water is dumped in the environment, especially during drilling operation.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Produced water (formation and injected water containing production chemicals) represents the largest volume waste stream in oil and gas production operations on most offshore platforms. In 2003, an estimated 667 million metric tons (about 800 million m3) of produced water were discharged to the ocean from offshore facilities throughout the world (Onojake M.C, 2011). There is considerable concern about the ocean disposal of produced water, because of the potential danger of chronic ecological harm. Produced water is a complex mixture of dissolved and particulate organic and inorganic chemicals in water that ranges from essentially freshwater to concentrated saline brine. The most abundant organic chemicals in most produced waters are water-soluble low molecular weight organic acids and monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Concentrations of total PAH and higher molecular weight alkyl phenols, the main toxicants in produced water, typically range from about 0.040 to about 3 mg/L. The metals most frequently present in produced water at elevated concentrations, relative to those in seawater, include barium, iron, manganese, mercury, and zinc. Upon discharge to the ocean, produced water dilutes rapidly, often by 100-fold or more within 100 m of the discharge according to Onojake M.C (2011). The chemicals of greatest environmental concern in produced water, because their concentrations may be high enough to cause bioaccumulation and toxicity, include aromatic hydrocarbons, some alkylphenols, and a few metals. Marine animals near a produced water discharge may bioaccumulate metals, phenols, and hydrocarbons from the ambient water, their food, or bottom sediments. The general consensus of the International Produced Water Conference was that any effects of produced water on individual offshore production sites are likely to be minor. However, unresolved questions regarding aspects of produced water composition and its fate and potential effects on the ecosystem remain. Multidisciplinary scientific studies are needed under an ecosystem-based management (EBM) approach to provide information on the environmental fates (dispersion, precipitation, biological and abiotic transformation) and effects of chronic, low-level exposures to the different chemicals in produced water.
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study is aimed at determining the physico-chemical properties of produced water from selected oil fields in Niger delta, to determine the extent of compliance with standard and global best practices for disposal into the environment. The objectives of this study are:
- To discuss the state of produced water generation, current handling practices and constituents of potential concern (COPCs) in produced water, and explores various reuse options and the environmental issues, risks, potential liabilities, and regulatory policies associated with reuse of produced water.
- To examine technical aspects of agricultural use of produced water, discusses costs, and provides insight on legal implications.
1.4 RESEARCH GAP
The current Oil-in-Water (OiW) regulations, measuring only dispersed oil and grease content, have been practiced for long time without any significant improvement. This is whilst the major hazardous portion of produced water falls in dissolved components. Although, in recent years numerous technologies have been commercialized for online measurement and treatment of the entire components of produced water, the regulations have not been updated, except for some limited regions. Given the international awareness of sustainability and the move towards zero discharge, it seems that the environmental authorities have delayed in upgrading their current unsustainable “oil-and-grease” regulations with more accurate ones. It is recommendable to the prospective field developers/operators to take into account the dissolved components of produced water and consider the economic consequences of adopting tertiary produced water polishing technologies.
1.5 SIGNIFICACE OF THE STUDY
This research work will throw more light on the best techniques for managing produced water thereby reducing pollution it can caused. This study will also be designed to be of immense benefit to all the that works in oil and gas producing site in that it will help them to understand the impact of the produced water to the environment.
1.6 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
As we all know that no human effort to achieve a set of goals goes without difficulties, certain constraints were encountered in the course of carrying out this project and they are as follows:-
- Difficulty in information collection: I found it too difficult in laying hands of useful information regarding this work and this course me to visit different libraries and internet for solution.
- Financial Constraint: Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and interview).
- Time Constraint: The researcher will simultaneously engage in this study with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted for the research work
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study is on produced water which is a byproduct of oil and gas exploration and production. This study discusses the state of produced water generation, the management challenge of produced water, current handling practices and constituents of potential concern (COPCs) in produced water, and explores various reuse options and the environmental issues, risks, potential liabilities, and regulatory policies associated with reuse of produced water. Additionally, this article features a technical highlight section, which examines technical aspects of agricultural use of produced water.
1.8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In the course of carrying this study, numerous sources were used which most of them are by visiting libraries, consulting journal and news papers and online research which Google was the major source that was used.
1.9 PROJECT ORGANISATION
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