POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY IN NIGERIA
Electric power has become increasingly important as a way of transmitting and transforming energy in industrial, military and transportation uses. Electric power systems are also at the heart of alternative energy systems, including wind and solar electric, geothermal and small scale hydroelectric generation.
The importance of power system reliability is demonstrated when our electricity supply is disrupted, whether it decreases the comfort of our free time at home or causes the shutdown of our companies and results in huge economic deficits. The objective of Assessment of Power System Reliability is to contribute to the improvement of power system reliability.
TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWELDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 POWER OUTAGE
1.2 TYPES OF POWER OUTAGE
1.3 PREVENTING THE POWER SYSTEM FROM OUTAGE
1.4 PROTECTING COMPUTER SYSTEMS FROM POWER OUTAGES.
1.5 RESTORING POWER AFTER A WIDE-AREA OUTAGE.
1.6 BLACKOUT INEVITABILITY AND ELECTRIC SUSTAINABILITY.
1.7 MITIGATION OF POWER OUTAGE FREQUENCY
1.8 DEFINITION OF RELIABILITY AND RISK
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT OF THE TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS METHODOLOGY
3.2 ADDRESSING POWER SUPPLY CHALLENGES IN NIGERIA
3.3 RELIABILITY EVALUATION
3.4 NETWORK COST MODELING
3.5 RELIABILITY BLOCK DIAGRAM
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 POWER OUTAGES IN THE NIGERIA TRANSMISSION GRID
4.2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.3 CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF POWER OUTAGES IN THE NIGERIA TRANSMISSION NETWORK.
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 REFERENCES/CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
5.2 RECOMMENDATION
5.3 REFERENCES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The electric utility is expected to provide continuous and quality of electric service to their customers at a reasonable rate by making economical use of available system and apparatus. To maintain reliable service to customers, the utility has to have adequate redundancy in its system to prevent a component outage becoming a service interruption to the customers, causing loss of goods, services or benefits.
Reliability costs are used for rate reviews and request for rate increases. Therefore in order to calculate the cost of reliability, the cost of an outage must be determined. Technique which can be used to determine the cost of outages in relation to loss of goodwill, loss of production, and damaged goods. The economic analysis of system reliability can also be a very useful planning tool in determining the capital expenditures required to impve service reliability by providing the real value of additional investments into the system. Lastly, expectation indices, which are most often used to express the adequacy of the generation configuration, characterize future system performance in a satisfactory manner.
The reliability standards for electricity supply in a developing country, like Nigeria, have to be determined on past engineering principles and practice. Because of the high demand of electrical power due to rapid development, industrialization and rural electrification; the economic, social and political climate in which the electric power supply industry now operates should be critically viewed to ensure that the production of electrical power should be augmented and remain uninterrupted. This paper presents an economic framework that can be used to optimize electric power system reliability. Finally the cost models are investigated to take into account the economic analysis of system reliability, which can be periodically updated to improve overall reliability of electric power system.
1.2 POWER OUTAGE
A power outage (also power cut, blackout, or power failure) is a short- or long-term loss of the electric power to an area.
There are many causes of power failures in an electricity network. Examples of these causes include faults at power stations, damage to electric transmission lines, substations or other parts of the distribution system, a short circuit, or the overloading of electricity mains.
Power failures are particularly critical at sites where the environment and public safety are at risk. Institutions such as hospitals, sewage treatment plants, mines, and the like will usually have backup power sources such as standby generators, which will automatically start up when electrical power is lost. Other critical systems, such as telecommunications, are also required to have emergency power. Telephone exchange rooms usually have arrays of lead-acid batteries for backup and also a socket for connecting a generator during extended periods of outage.
1.3 TYPES OF POWER OUTAGE
Power outages are categorized into three different phenomena, relating to the duration and effect of the outage:
- A transient fault is a momentary (a few seconds) loss of power typically caused by a temporary fault on a power line. Power is automatically restored once the fault is cleared.
- A brownout or sag is a drop in voltage in an electrical power supply. The term brownout comes from the dimming experienced by lighting when the voltage sags. Brownouts can cause poor performance of equipment or even incorrect operation.
- A blackout refers to the total loss of power to an area and is the most severe form of power outage that can occur. Blackouts which result from or result in power stations tripping are particularly difficult to recover from quickly. Outages may last from a few minutes to a few weeks depending on the nature of the blackout and the configuration of the electrical network.
In power supply networks, the power generation and the electrical load (demand) must be very close to equal every second to avoid overloading of network components, which can severely damage them. Protective relays and fuses are used to automatically detect overloads and to disconnect circuits at risk of damage.
Under certain conditions, a network component shutting down can cause current fluctuations in neighbouring segments of the network leading to a cascading failure of a larger section of the network. This may range from a building, to a block, to an entire city, to an entire electrical grid.
Modern power systems are designed to be resistant to this sort of cascading failure, but it may be unavoidable. Moreover, since there is no short-term economic benefit to preventing rare large-scale failures, some observers have expressed concern that there is a tendency to erode the resilience of the network over time, which is only corrected after a major failure occurs. It has been claimed that reducing the likelihood of small outages only increases the likelihood of larger ones. In that case, the short-term economic benefit of keeping the individual customer happy increases the likelihood of large-scale blackouts.
Computer systems and other electronic devices containing logic circuitry are susceptible to data loss or hardware damage that can be caused by the sudden loss of power. These can include data networking equipment, video projectors, alarm systems as well as computers. To protect against this, the use of an uninterruptible power supply or UPS can provide a constant flow of electricity in the event that a primary power supply becomes unavailable for a short period of time. To protect against surges (events where voltages increase for a few seconds), which can damage hardware when power is restored; a special device called a surge protector that absorbs the excess voltage can be used.
1.6 RESTORING POWER AFTER A WIDE-AREA OUTAGERestoring power after a wide-area outage can be difficult, as power stations need to be brought back on-line. Normally, this is done with the help of power from the rest of the grid. In the total absence of grid power, a so-called black start needs to be performed to bootstrap the power grid into operation. The means of doing so will depend greatly on local circumstances and operational policies, but typically transmission utilities will establish localized 'power islands' which are then progressively coupled together. To maintain supply frequencies within tolerable limits during this process, demand must be reconnected at the same pace that generation is restored, requiring close coordination between power stations, transmission and distribution organizations.
1.7 BLACKOUT INEVITABILITY AND ELECTRIC SUSTAINABILITYSelf-organized criticality
It has been argued on the basis of historical data and computer modelling that power grids are self-organized critical systems. These systems exhibit unavoidable disturbances of all sizes, up to the size of the entire system. This phenomenon has been attributed to steadily increasing demand/load, the economics of running a power company, and the limits of modern engineering.[4] While blackout frequency has been shown to be reduced by operating it further from its critical point, it generally isn’t economically feasible, causing providers to increase the average load over time or upgrade less often resulting in the grid moving itself closer to its critical point. Conversely, a system past the critical point will experience too many blackouts leading to system-wide upgrades moving it back below the critical point. The term critical point of the system is used here in the sense of statistical physics and nonlinear dynamics, representing the point where a system undergoes a phase transition; in this case the transition from a steady reliable grid with few cascading failures to a very sporadic unreliable grid with common cascading failures. Near the critical point the relationship between blackout frequency and size follows a power law distribution. Other leaders are dismissive of system theories that conclude that blackouts are inevitable, but do agree that the basic operation of the grid must be changed. The Electric Power Research Institute champions the use of smart grid features such as power control devices employing advanced sensors to coordinate the grid. Others advocate greater use of electronically controlled High-voltage direct current (HVDC) firebreaks to prevent disturbances from cascading across AC lines in a wide area grid.
Cascading failure becomes much more common close to this critical point. The power law relationship is seen in both historical data and model systems. The practice of operating these systems much closer to their maximum capacity leads to magnified effects of random, unavoidable disturbances due to aging, weather, human interaction etc. While near the critical point, these failures have a greater effect on the surrounding components due to individual components carrying a larger load. This results in the larger load from the failing component having to be redistributed in larger quantities across the system, making it more likely for additional components not directly affected by the disturbance to fail, igniting costly and dangerous cascading failures. These initial disturbances causing blackouts are all the more unexpected and unavoidable due to actions of the power suppliers to prevent obvious disturbances (cutting back trees, separating lines in windy areas, replacing aging components etc.). The complexity of most power grids often makes the initial cause of a blackout extremely hard to identify.
1.8 MITIGATION OF POWER OUTAGE FREQUENCY
The effects of trying to mitigate cascading failures near the critical point in an economically feasible fashion are often shown to not be beneficial and often even detrimental. Four mitigation methods have been tested using the OPA blackout model:
- Increase critical number of failures causing cascading blackouts - Shown to decrease the frequency of smaller blackouts but increase that of larger blackouts.
- Increase individual power line max load – Shown to increase the frequency of smaller blackouts and decrease that of larger blackouts.
- Combination of increasing critical number and max load of lines – Shown to have no significant effect on either size of blackout. The resulting minor reduction in the frequency of blackouts is projected to not be worth the cost of the implementation.
- Increase the excess power available to the grid – Shown to decrease the frequency of smaller blackouts but increase that of larger blackouts.
In addition to the finding of each mitigation strategy having a cost-benefit relationship with regards to frequency of small and large blackouts, the total number of blackout events was not significantly reduced by any of the above mentioned mitigation measures.
1.9 DEFINITION OF RELIABILITY AND RISK
Because of the many different operational requirements and varying environments, reliability means different things to different people. The generally accepted definition of reliability defines the reliability as the characteristic of an item expressed by the probability that it will perform a required function under stated conditions for a stated period of time. The term reliability is divided to two terms when dealing with the power systems. Those two terms are adequacy and security. The adequacy is related to the existence of sufficient generation of the electric power system to satisfy the consumer demand. The security is related to the ability of the electric power system to respond to transients and disturbances that occur in the system. Risk is a combination of a probability for an accident occurrence and resulting negative consequences. Risk is often reserved for random events with negative consequences to human life and environment.
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